Angel’s Trumpets and Morning Glories—An Ethnobotanical Survey of Psychoactive Perennials Part 1: Brugmansia

For centuries, psychoactive substances have been used by human communities around the world, contributing to spiritual, medicinal, and recreational practices (Crocq, 2007). In Vedic tradition, for example, sóma was used for apotheotic rites: a mysterious drink of either plant or mushroom origin (Staal, 2001). Comparatively, ibogaine was ingested by the founders of Bwiti in Central Africa (Pinchbeck, 2002); the powdered sacrament remains an essential component of initiation ceremonies, derived from the roots of Tabernanthe iboga (Blainey, 2015). In contemporary societies, caffeine persists as a prominent stimulant (Ryan et al., 2002). It largely constitutes the invigorating effects of coffee, chocolate, tea, and Coca-Cola (Cappelletti et al., 2015). Contained in more than 60 botanical species, the compound’s employment predates the Iron Age (Pollan, 2021), epitomising the perennial relationship between psychoactive substances and human performance.

Recent studies have reaffirmed the psychiatric significance of psychedelic drugs (Davis et al., 2021; De Gregorio et al., 2021; Lowe et al., 2022). Enthusiasm for such research arguably began in 1943, when Albert Hofmann accidentally discovered the hallucinogenic effects of LSD-25 (Pollan, 2018). Throughout the 1950s, clinical trials yielded promising data for both LSD and psilocybin: each fungal molecule showed ameliorative potential for conditions such as alcoholism and depression (Abramson, 1956; Chandler & Hartman, 1960; Griffiths & Grobb, 2010). Nevertheless, the compounds became stigmatised amidst widespread abuse in the 1960s (Pollan, 2018). Instances of catatonia and suicide emerged from the decade’s counterculture, initiating a moral panic (Pollan, 2018). Sweeping prohibition ensued, criminalising the chemicals, and relevant therapies were consequently abandoned by scientific circles (Pollan, 2018).

After years of underground enthusiasm, psychedelic research reemerged in the 1990s (Pollan, 2018). Ethnobotanists and mycologists such as Terence McKenna and Paul Stamets advocated psilocybin’s psychological merits (Pollan, 2018). LSD was championed by comparable scientists: having referred to LSD as “medicine for the soul,” Albert Hofmann maintained his appreciation for the compound until his death in 2008 (Fusar-Poli & Borgwardt, 2008, p. 484). In 2006, over 2,000 people packed the Congress Centre Basel in Switzerland to celebrate Hofmann’s 100th birthday (Pollan, 2018). The centenarian took the stage, proclaiming, “The feeling of co-creatureliness with all things alive should enter our consciousness more fully and counterbalance the materialistic and nonsensical technological developments in order to enable us to return to the roses, to the flowers, to nature, where we belong” (Pollan, 2018, p. 26). Receiving thunderous applause, the appeal was redolent of Hofmann’s earliest LSD sentiments: during a 0.25 mg experiment, “everything glistened and sparkled in a fresh light. The world was as if newly created” (Pollan, 2018, p. 25).

LSD and psilocybin continue to dominate hallucinogenic studies: efforts to therapeutically supplement both psychiatric and end-of-life affairs (Ross et al., 2022; Więckiewicz et al., 2001). Consequently, inadequate attention has been given to comparable molecules (Pollan, 2018), such as scopolamine and ergine. Scopolamine constitutes a deliriant (Volgin et al., 2019), occasioning fascinating roots of ethnobotanical shamanism; ergine involves a similar origin to that of LSD, deriving from clavicipitaceous fungi (Beaulieu et al., 2021). The following review explores both Brugmansia and Ipomoea: the botanical sources of scopolamine and ergine, respectively. It emphasises the psychoactive potency of each genus, summarising the natural history, cultural significance, and chemistry of various plants.                            

Floripondio constitutes the Spanish term for Brugmansia species, emerging from the 16th century (De Feo, 2004). Closely related to Datura, the genera differ in fruit and flower morphology (Lockwood, 1973). Datura yields spiny capsules, which accompany upright blooms; Brugmansia bears spineless berries and pendulous blossoms (Preissel, 2002). Furthermore, Brugmansia species involve perenniality, living for several decades, while Datura consists of annual plants (Preissel, 2002). Each genus belongs to the nightshades—the Solanaceae—which comprise a number of toxic species, including Mandragora officinarum and Atropa belladonna (Preissel, 2002). Brugmansia spp. are considered weedy plants, well adapted to disturbed environments (Lockwood, 1973). Phylogenetically primitive to Datura, Brugmansia evolved in the northern Andes, where mesic conditions affected its phenotypes (Lockwood, 1973). The genus’s adaptive radiation likely occurred primarily in the late Tertiary, when the Andes underwent their last orogeny (Lockwood, 1973). Amidst a wealth of newly disturbed habitats, Brugmansia developed arborescence, secondary woodiness, and the ability to proliferate through basal shoots (Lockwood, 1973). 

Figure 1. B. arborea (Petruss, 2012)

Colloquially known as angel’s trumpet, Brugmansia encompasses seven wild species: B. arborea, B. aurea, B. insignis, B. sanguinea, B. suaveolens, B. versicolor, and B. vulcanicola (Chellemi et al., 2011; Preissel, 2002). B. arborea originates from Ecuador, Peru, northern Chile, and Bolivia (Preissel, 2002). It prefers altitudes between 2,000 and 3,000 m (Preissel, 2002). Accordingly, individuals are extremely robust, withstanding both frosty temperatures and occasional droughts (Preissel, 2002). Displaying the shortest trumpets of all Brugmansia species, the flowers of B. arborea develop continually, each lasting between 4 and 6 d (Preissel, 2002); they become more fragrant in the evening, and their creamy white corollae attract night moths, which serve as primary pollinators (Preissel, 2022). Velvety pubescence covers the branches, leaves, and egg-shaped fruit (Preissel, 2002). The style involves an indumentum, which characterises B. arborea (Preissel, 2002); all other Brugmansia spp. feature glabrous styles (Preissel, 2002). 

Figure 2. B. aurea (Hermans, 2010)

B. aurea thrives in similar altitudes, matching B. arborea’s preference of 2,000–3,000 m (Preissel, 2002). The two species differ in hardiness—B. aurea fails in frosty conditions, incompatible with the cooler areas of Chile and Peru (Preissel, 2002); its natural habitats include the high Andean regions of northern Columbia, Venezuela, and Ecuador (Preissel, 2002). As its name suggests, B. aurea boasts brilliant yellow flowers, ranging from sulphur to apricot (Preissel, 2002); in addition to night moths, the flowers attract hummingbird pollinators, which collect nectar and insects from the corolla tubes (Preissel, 2002). While in bud, the floral peaks curl distinctively, spiralling forward (Preissel, 2002). The plant’s imposing leaves further differentiate B. aurea from other Brugmansia species (Preissel, 2002). Although foliar sizes can vary considerably, they measure up to 70 cm in length and 35 cm in width: the largest of the genus (Preissel, 2002).

Figure 3. B. insignis from Armenia, Colombia (Tamayo, 2014)

Arguments suggest that B. insignis may epitomise a natural hybrid: a cross between B. suaveolens and B. versicolor preceding a B. suaveolens cross-back (Preissel, 2002). Evidence contradicts the notion, as B. insignis’s natural range is spatially separated from that of each proposed parent (Preissel, 2002); it involves the lower mountain zone of the eastern Andes in Peru (Preissel, 2002). Furthermore, B. insignis exceeds all other Brugmansia species in its need for warmth, effectively undermining the hybrid hypothesis (Preissel, 2002). Some of the plant’s structures are relatively thin: the branches and funnel-shaped corollae (Preissel, 2002). The delicate petal edges, which curve slightly forward, serve as peculiar characteristics for B. insignis (Preissel, 2002). When air humidity is high, flowers open completely—typically during the daylight hours (Preissel, 2002). Unlike the continual inflorescence of B. arborea, B. insignis flowers in bursts, appearing in cream, white, and pink nuances (Preissel, 2002).

Figure 4. B. sanguinea—Wilhelma (Dryas, 2007)

Extremely robust and wonderfully coloured, B. sanguinea is indigenous to the Andean slopes of northern Columbia and northern Chile: altitudes of 2,000–3,000 m (Preissel, 2002). The plant loses leaves and branches amidst heavy frost (Preissel, 2002); however, it can recover effortlessly as favourable temperatures return, rebounding from tolerant stalks (Preissel, 2002). B. sanguinea’s floral shape renders the species highly recognisable: the tubular corollae widen strictly at the mouth (Preissel, 2002). Prominent flower veins accomplish superior stability to that of any other Brugmansia species (Preissel, 2002). The corollae can appear both mono- and multicoloured (Preissel, 2002); while pastel petals dominate among the other angel’s trumpets, B. sanguinea dangles shining arrangements of pink, orange, and yellow (Preissel, 2002). Prevalent temperatures can significantly affect individual flowers (Preissel, 2002); for example, tricoloured flowers at 20ºC will become bicoloured as fall temperatures of 10ºC arrive (Preissel, 2002). While very warm summers can provoke floral bursts in other Brugmansia species, temperatures above 22ºC seem to inhibit flower development in B. sanguinea (Preissel, 2002). As its name suggests, the corollae often include sections of brilliant red, which attract hummingbirds (Preissel, 2002). The animal serves as the plant’s primary pollinator: highly perceptive to the red spectrum (Preissel, 2002). Accordingly, B. sanguinea flowers are the only scentless blossoms within the genus (Preissel, 2002).   

Figure 5. B. suaveolens (Pisofrix, 2016)

B. suaveolens comes from the coastal regions of Brazil’s southeastern rainforest (Preissel, 2002). The plants grow below altitudes of 1,000 m: typically along forest edges and river banks for optimal humidity and rainfall (Preissel, 2002). As an ornamental plant, B. suaveolens likely constitutes the most widely cultivated angel’s trumpet (Preissel, 2002). Flowers are funnel-shaped, and five peaks generally circle the mouth (Preissel, 2002); three flower veins support each peak, giving the corollae a distinguishing look (Preissel, 2002). Anthers are glued to one another, forming a unit in all varieties of B. suaveolens (Preissel, 2002). While other Brugmansia species involve consistently independent anthers, those of B. suaveolens only loosen from the unit during inflorescence: another distinguishing feature (Preissel, 2002). Vespertine aromas complement white corollae, which attract night moths (Preissel, 2002). B. suaveolens occasionally produces pink and yellow blossoms (Preissel, 2002). Although flowers diminish after 2–4 wk, another burst of colour will follow (Preissel, 2002); unlike other angel’s trumpets, B. suaveolens is never without blooms (Preissel, 2002). If temperatures remain between 12 and 18ºC, the species can even blossom in the winter months of temperate climates (Preissel, 2002).

Figure 6. B. versicolor (Kestrel, 2019)

Accommodating growth up to an altitude of 750 m, B. versicolor’s habitat is limited to the tropical regions of Ecuador (Preissel, 2002); it includes the Guayaquil Basin and patches just south of the Gulf of Guayaquil (Preissel, 2002). Despite the relatively small distribution area, B. versicolor embodies considerable variation in flower size and pubescent density (Preissel, 2002); the largest flowers occur in the northern regions, while the furriest plants with distinctly small flowers emerge in the native habitat’s southern regions (Preissel, 2002). B. versicolor remains easy to recognise: the corollae are the largest of all Brugmansia species, reaching lengths of 30–50 cm (Preissel, 2002); each corolla’s basal end narrows into a tube, which can constitute half the length of the blossom (Preissel, 2002). As buds open, they turn white before possibly transitioning into a final colour of apricot, peach, or pink (Preissel, 2002). Floral scents are particularly strong in the evening, attracting night-moth pollinators (Preissel, 2002). The blossoms develop in bursts, and growth stages are especially unique (Preissel, 2002); out of the seven Brugmansia species, B. versicolor involves the greatest number of simultaneous flowers, appearing as one mass of blossoms during the 2–4-wk flowering period (Preissel, 2002).

Figure 7. B. vulcanicola (Lipper1, 2018)

The rarest of Brugmansia species, B. vulcanicola involves a limited native habitat: primarily the slopes of southern Columbia’s Puracé volcano, on which only a few isolated examples of B. vulcanicola have occurred (Preissel, 2002). B. vulcanicola’s flowers resemble those of B. sanguinea (Preissel, 2002.); however, the floral peaks are the shortest among those of all Brugmansia species: only 0.3–1.5 cm in length (Preissel, 2002). The gamopetalous corollae also involve the smallest diameters of all angel’s trumpet flowers (Preissel, 2002). Like B. sanguinea, B. vulcanicola has a multicoloured form: a green, often calyx-covered base and red middle—the flower becomes increasingly yellow towards the mouth (Preissel, 2002). Monocoloured forms of red and yellow also exist (Preissel, 2002). Ovate leaves accompany the flowers, which can last between 5 and 8 d (Preissel, 2002). Calyces typically fall off as fruit develop: wrinkled, ovate ovaries of 12 cm in length. B. vulcanicola remains a generally elusive plant; horticultural challenges contribute to the plant’s rarity, as B. vulcanicola is particularly susceptible to substrate moisture (Preissel, 2002). 

Each Brugmansia species is classified as Extinct in the Wild by the IUCN Red List (Egbunda et al., 2018). Wild B. insignis, for example, seldom produces fruit in nature; it owes its survival exclusively to ornamental efforts, adorning front gardens and neighbourhood streets (Preissel, 2002). Brugmansia pests include leaf bugs, aphids, spider mites, and whiteflies (Preissel, 2002). Of all the angel’s trumpets, B. arborea and B. aurea comprise the most resistant plants, while B. suaveolens experiences the greatest diversity of leaf pests (Preissel, 2002). Viral diseases include datura wilt virus, datura quercina virus, and datura malformation virus (Preissel, 2002); such pathogens are especially effective against B. sanguinea (Preissel, 2002). Although signs of infection can vary greatly, the most common involves a foliar mosaic of light- and dark-green spots (Preissel, 2002). Thrip larvae constitute notable viral carriers (Preissel, 2002); they suck the sap from infected tissues and subsequently spread harmful microbes to healthy plants (Preissel, 2002). Fungal diseases are becoming increasingly prevalent among Brugmansia species (Preissel, 2002). B. suaveolens is especially at risk, succumbing to conditions including stalk wilt and leaf spot disease (Preissel, 2002).

Indeed, if it were not for Brugmansia’s aesthetic value, the genus might have long since been eliminated (Preissel, 2002). Ethnobotanically, angel’s trumpets also have medicinal and spiritual significance: B. aurea and B. sanguinea are especially important in Latin American shamanism (Preissel, 2002). Tribes of the Sibundoy Valley, for instance, have long used the following combination to ameliorate rheumatic pain: B. sanguinea flowers and the leaves of both a stinging nettle weed and B. aurea hybrid (Preissel, 2002); the B. aurea hybrid is vernacularly known as culebra, an abbreviation of mutscuai borrachero, which translates from Kamëntsá to “plant of the snake that intoxicates” (Preissel, 2002, p. 34). Among the Inga of Colombia, B. sanguinea is similarly known as guamucu borrachera (Preissel, 2002; Rätsch, 2005); for the Muisca in Tunja, borrachero refers to both B. sanguinea and B. aurea (Preissel, 2002), effectively reaffirming indigenous awareness of Brugmansia’s potent effects.  

Angel’s trumpets can be used both topically and internally for various conditions; leaf decoctions, for example, can offer anti-inflammatory poultices, while vapours can serve as vaginal antiseptics—alleviating dysmenorrhea (De Feo, 2004). Furthermore, Brugmansia’s pharmacognostic potential encompasses analgesic and anthelmintic applications (De Feo, 2004); flowers are said to reduce swelling and prevent the spread of varicose veins (Preissel, 2002). Despite the medicinal benefits, Brugmansia species remain cautiously revered; each plant’s anaesthetic capacity reflects an arguably macabre record of sorcery and premature burial (Preissel, 2002; De Feo, 2004). Accounts from the 16th century, for instance, describe the funeral rites for a Muisca chief—the ceremony involved vivisepulture, during which women and slaves received drinks of both tobacco and Brugmansia: “in this way none of their senses could recognize the fate that was in store for them” (Preissel, 2002, pg. 16). Such sedations inadvertently parallel the etymological roots of huacacachu: a Peruvian term for B. sanguinea, meaning “plant of the grave” (Preissel, 2002, p. 17). According to shamanic interpretations, Brugmansia decoctions can facilitate necromancy, allowing ancestral spirits to reveal the locations of forgotten, treasure-laden tombs (Preissel, 2002; Schultes, 1981).

In essence, Brugmansia involves a fascinating history of mystical impressions. While some traditions embrace the plants as gifts “from the gods” (Preissel, 2002, pg. 16), others remain wary: Brugmansia-induced visions of snakes and wild animals have led to fearful explanations and legends (Preissel, 2002). Collectively known as misha in Peruvian folk medicine, Brugmansia species are said to animalise: B. sanguinea, for example, can transform into a bull, while B. arborea can adopt the shape of a puma (De Feo, 2004). Such ideas exemplify an animistic worldview, which ultimately dominates Brugmansia-centred regimens: B. versicolor’s preparation, for example, involves a transparent bottle of wine, into which one leaf and two flowers are inserted (De Feo, 2004); the bottle is subsequently buried for 8 d, ideally under the light of a full moon (De Feo, 2004). B. versicolor constitutes the safest misha for ingestion (De Feo, 2004). The other Brugmansia species are mostly employed as ointments, vapours, and bandages (De Feo, 2004). An infusion of B. insignis, for instance, can mitigate chronic pain when the extract’s leaves are applied to a sufferer’s nape and forehead (De Feo, 2004). Each plant’s toxicity is acknowledged in Peru’s traditional medicine (De Feo, 2004); accordingly, mishas are therapeutically reserved strictly for shamanic healers: the curanderos (De Feo, 2004).  

In rural communities of Northern Peru, supernatural ideas persist (De Feo, 2004). Although shamanic precautions align with toxicological evidence, they stem primarily from intangible concerns: the Andean curanderos associate Brugmansia’s psychotropic actions with a paranormal “dissociation of body and spirit” (De Feo, 2004, pg. S221). Accordingly, the ritualistic approach to Brugmansia is understandable—offerings of sugar and honey are often sprinkled over the plants before foliar collection (De Feo, 2004). B. insignis can be consumed: the leaves are allowed to ferment in white wine for 2 d (De Feo, 2004). Among Peruvian shamans, the plant is known as misha rastrera, which derives from rastrear: “to follow footsteps” (De Feo, 2004, p. S223); the name corresponds to B. insignis’s role in divination efforts: reputedly, it can be used to realise clairvoyance, diagnose illness, and find a lost person or thing (De Feo, 2004). Following the plant’s consumption, a 5-d diet proceeds: the participant abstains from fats, onions, and red peppers; mutton and chicken are the only meats permitted (De Feo, 2004). Similar conventions are observed for B. sanguinea. Although infusions of the plant “must not be taken orally” (De Feo, 2004, p. S223), vulnerary treatments precede a comparable 5-d regimen: dietary constraints are maintained; additionally, fire, water and coitus are avoided (De Feo, 2004).

The spiritual significance of Brugmansia deserves more attention, especially with respect to syncretism. In Peruvian shamanism, oneiric and visionary rites for B. sanguinea, B. insignis, and B. aurea involve deliberate foliar arrangements: leaves are positioned in the shape of a cross and subsequently tied to the forehead and nape (De Feo, 2004). Although the foliar cross may reify a Christian influence, a more thorough literature review is needed to unravel the possibility. It remains well established, however, that both Catholic and Protestant evangelism have heavily affected the indigenous traditions of Latin America (Davis, 1983; Tym, 2022). Amidst post-contact destruction and acculturation, Peru’s aboriginal purity was overwhelmingly lost (Davis, 1983). In Huacacamba’s surrounding valleys, for example, miscegenation has generated predominantly Mestizo populations (Davis, 1983). The region’s earliest languages and socioreligious practices have long since been entirely abolished (Davis, 1983). While remnants of pre-Columbian customs endure, their roots remain difficult to discern: Christianity’s inextricable threads have made it “difficult to distinguish one tradition from the other” (Davis, 1983, p. 369). As Roman Catholic symbolism has permeated regional perspectives, contemporary relationships between Peruvian shamans and psychoactive plants may somewhat represent a colonial phenomenon (Davis, 1983).

Both Christian and shamanic anecdotes substantiate the notion of spiritual phytotherapy. A Catholic man’s account describes an injured foot’s repair: after consuming a Brugmansia concoction, the man was tended by an angel’s-trumpet spirit (Tym, 2022); it appeared in vivid dreams as a team of White physicians (Tym, 2022); within 2 d of the apparition, the foot was cured (Tym, 2022), ostensibly reconciling the realms of spirituality and pharmacognosy. For Peruvian curanderos, Brugmansia actualises prophylactic divination: the plants can expose a disease’s aetiology (De Feo, 2004). In Ecuador’s Saraguro communities, the angel’s trumpets function as both medicines and totems—collectively known as wandug, they can alleviate anguish and protect households from witchcraft, gracing the gardens of most Saraguro homes (Armijos et al., 2014). The Shuar of Ecuador and Peru subscribe to similar perceptions (Bennett, 1992); apprehensive respect towards B. suaveolens evokes the Paracelsian adage of dosis sola facit venenum: “the dose makes the poison” (Chen et al., 2018, p. 650). Known as maikua, B. suaveolens constitutes the Shuar’s most powerful and dangerous hallucinogen (Bennett, 1992). Excessive use of the plant can precipitate insanity (Bennett, 1992), echoing a relatively superstitious consensus among Latin American shamans: the idea that sleeping in B. sanguinea’s shade can drive a person mad (Bennett, 1992; Preissel, 2002).

Such trepidation ultimately alludes to a phytochemical premise. Brugmansia’s tropane alkaloids can trigger anticholinergic consequences (Capasso & De Feo, 2002). Scopolamine comprises the highest concentrations, making up 30–60% of the average plant’s alkaloid content (Preissel, 2002). In conjunction with atropine, the compound constitutes Brugmansia’s most toxic molecule (Petricevich et al., 2020). As muscarinic-receptor antagonists (Capasso & De Feo, 2002), the compounds can engender toxidromes, each manifesting amidst a plethora of possible symptoms: mydriasis, agitation, tachycardia, fever, ileal paralysis, delirium, and coma (Petricevich et al., 2020). Scopolamine’s effects on eyes and glands are more potent than those of atropine; meanwhile, atropine’s cardiac, bronchial, and gastrointestinal hazards are more severe than those of scopolamine (Tullberg, 2007). Although Brugmansia seeds typically amount to the plant’s most poisonous structures, the flowers, leaves, and roots can be equally detrimental (Petricevich et al., 2020); floral ingestion has been principally linked to adverse Brugmansia encounters (Doan et al., 2019; Kerchner & Farkas, 2020), while 4–5 g of raw leaf can provenly kill a child (Petricevich et al., 2020).

Considering Brugmansia’s toxicity, Peruvian shamans were diligent in contriving a misha antidote: known as arranque, the ingredients include powdered white maize, carnation petals, lime juice, wild honey, and spring water (De Feo, 2004). A more thorough literature review is needed to ascertain the mixture’s counteractive merits. Intravenous physostigmine can thwart Brugmansia’s deleterious effects, acting as a cholinesterase inhibitor (Jayawickreme, 2019); however, the phytochemical occurs most notably in Physostigma venenosum: Africa’s calabar bean—a geographically inaccessible plant for curanderos (Nickalls & Nickalls, 1988). Physostigmine can be isolated from Hippomane mancinella: Manchineel trees of the Americas (André, 2013). Hypothetically, psychoactive nectar could initiate arranque’s wild honey; a relevant phenomenon occurs between bees and rhododendrons (Jansen et al., 2012); nevertheless, the concept’s substantiation would require a dedicated study. 

Regardless, a prudent approach remains imperative for Brugmansia’s employment—both shamanic and clinical reports involve terrifying ordeals: complementary nightmares of angel’s-trumpet consumption. Tonga, a sacramental drink of B. sanguinea, was administered to a Peruvian participant: after 45 min, “a thick white foam leaked out between his half open lips. The pulses on his forehead and throat were beating too fast to be counted. His breathing was short, extraordinarily fast and did not seem to lift the chest, which was visibly fibrillating” (Preissel, 2002, p. 17); the man’s limbs contorted hideously as he alternated between murmurs and shrieks, groaning and howling until the episode’s decline (Preissel, 2002).

One of the most alarming case reports describes an instance of self-harm: in Germany, an 18-year-old man was hospitalised after amputating his penis with pruning shears (Marneros et al., 2006). The acute psychosis was attributed to an angel’s trumpet tea: a two-flower infusion of B. sanguinea (Marneros et al., 2006). After similarly gashing his tongue, the man was admitted for surgery and psychiatrically examined—he “reported a complete amnesia” for the hours of intoxication (Marneros et al., 2006, p. 459). Despite the possibility of such extreme reactions, Brugmansia remains remarkably licit (Isbister et al., 2003). The genus’s recreational abuse has been documented across the globe: treacherous pursuits of legal highs (Göpel et al., 2002; Hall et al., 1977; Polischuk, 2010). Nevertheless, Brugmansia’s psychotropic effects should not elicit demonisation. Scientific studies have shown the medicinal merits of angel’s-trumpet alkaloids: scopolamine can attenuate morphine withdrawal (Capasso & De Feo, 2002); additionally, the compound’s neurological effects can collectively serve as a model of Alzheimer’s disease (Bajo et al., 2015). Brugmansia may thereby elucidate dementia’s prognosis, marginally reconciling clinical efforts and shamanic perspectives: the link between angel’s trumpets and lost things.

The article’s lead image was provided by David F. Belmonte:
Belmonte, D. F. (2022). Red angel’s trumpet (Brugmansia sanguinea) [Photograph]. iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/111023301
This image is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.

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