Ayahuasca: Rivier and Lindgren Review
In 1972, Laurent Rivier and Jan-Erik Lindgren delivered an entheogenic study, entitled “‘Ayahuasca,’ the South American Hallucinogenic Drink: An Ethnobotanical and Chemical Investigation.” Published in Economic Botany, the article discusses Ayahuasca’s preparation: the botanical ingredients and approximate measurements. Additionally, the paper summarises each plant’s molecular data, quantifying the alkaloid concentrations in 200-mL servings of the decoction.
Although previous research had explored the mixture’s rites and constituent plants, the article by Rivier and Lindgren was the first to include the drink’s chemical composition. Accordingly, the publication represents an important contribution to multiple disciplines, including ethnopharmacology and psychiatric medicine. The hallucinogenic effects of Ayahuasca can evoke disturbing visions. Nevertheless, anecdotal evidence describes persistent feelings of harmony and spiritual lucidity among participants: the drink can induce euphoric, oracular, and nightmarish episodes, each fading into a lingering sense of unity and love.
The paper begins by introducing Peruvian tribes, focusing primarily on the Sharanahua and Culina. It explains that Ayahuasca’s significance prevails in South America: regional names include Yagé and Caapi. Ultimately, the term ayahuasca comes from a Quechua expression, meaning vine of the souls. Different traditions can involve unique materials; however, the basic decoction consists of two plants: Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis. Colloquially, the caapi vine is also known as ayahuasca, reverenced superiorly to Psychotria ingredients. Psychotria carthagenensis can substitute for P. viridis; however, the species often contains higher concentrations of alkaloids, as shown in Table III of the article. Consequently, the Ayahuasca decoction can vary in potency among Amazonian tribes, complementing the essence of Indigenous diversity.
Participatory research and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) accommodated the objectives of Rivier and Lindgren. Each botanist experienced the psychedelic drink, consuming Ayahuasca on several occasions. The documented accounts confirm the decoction’s entheogenic potential: reflections on surreal encounters and otherworldly landscapes. For molecular analyses, samples of B. caapi were collected from Peruvian villages; voucher herbarium specimens were also employed, obtained from Botanical Gardens in New York, Stockholm, and Lausanne. Roots, leaves, and stems were air-dried; sunlight was avoided, as exposure can reportedly jeopardise Ayahuasca’s efficacy. To isolate the alkaloids, 1–200 g of powdered plant material was stirred with methanol, filtered, and left to evaporate under reduced pressure. The residue was subsequently shaken with H₂SO₄ and centrifuged; a second treatment of sulfuric acid was applied. After an additional round of centrifugation and H₂SO₄, the acidic solutions were extracted with chloroform; the CHCl₃ layer was rejected, and Na₂CO₃ was added to increase the solution’s alkalinity to a pH of 10. Basic compounds were extracted, and the organic solution was evaporated under reduced pressure: these final steps involved chloroform, anhydrous Na₂SO₄, and H₂SO₄.
GC–MS techniques were performed, and quantitative estimations were reified, established with planimetric observations: harmine acted as a standard. As Tables I–IV demonstrate, Rivier and Lindgren successfully realised the alkaloid ratios in various tissues of B. caapi and Psychotria spp. The most prominent compounds in B. caapi were recorded as follows: harmine, tetrahydroharmine, harmaline, and harmol. Although the paper does not appear to address the relationship between B. caapi and enzymatic activity, supplementary articles emphasise Ayahuasca’s harmala alkaloids: harmine and harmaline serve as monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOI), attenuating the breakdown of dimethyltryptamine (DMT) (McKenna et al., 1984). As DMT fulfils Ayahuasca’s psychoactive influence, B. caapi remains an essential component, facilitating tryptamine’s oral activation. The hallucinogen occupies Psychotria spp. in notable concentrations: Rivier and Lindgren found that the leaves of both P. viridis and P. carthagenensis bore DMT values of 99% with respect to the alkaloid ratios. By concretising B. caapi and Psychotria spp. metabolites, the botanists were able to finalise their project: a 200-mL portion of Ayahuasca contains 30 mg of harmine, 10 mg of tetrahydroharmine, and 25 mg of dimethyltryptamine.
The study yielded important results, as it was the first to properly quantify the decoction: it delineated Ayahuasca’s chemical concentrations, bolstering the pharmaceutical benefits of B. caapi and Psychotria spp. Rivier and Lindgren pursued a mixed-method approach, attending shamanic ceremonies for anecdotal evidence. Therefore, the paper achieves an impressive balance between ethnomethodology and phytochemistry: it effectively fosters intercultural awareness while exemplifying shamanism’s scientific merits. Considering the numerous tables of GC–MS data, the conclusions appear appropriate. Nevertheless, similar publications offer contradictory numbers (McKenna et al., 1984); the aforementioned milligrams in 200 mL of Ayahuasca should not be regarded as absolutely reliable. Altogether, the article was fairly accessible. Some of the analytical methods seemed difficult to interpret: a better understanding of alkaloid isolation and GC–MS would improve the paper’s readability. As championed by reputable enthusiasts, such as Dennis McKenna and Paul Stamets (McKenna et al., 1984; Stamets, 1978), hallucinogens encompass revolutionary treatments for neurological disorders. In that regard, the efforts of Rivier and Lidgren may constitute a monumental step amidst the psychedelic renaissance.
References
McKenna, D., Towers, G. H. N., & Abbott, F. (1984). Monoamine oxidase inhibitors in South American hallucinogenic plants: Tryptamine and β-carboline constituents of Ayahuasca. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 10(2), 195–223. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8741(84) 90003-5
Rivier, L., & Lindgren, J. -E. (1972). “Ayahuasca,” the South American hallucinogenic drink: An ethnobotanical and chemical investigation. Economic Botany, 26(2), 101–129. https:// www.jstor.org/stable/4253328
Stamets, P. (1978). Psilocybe mushrooms & their allies. Homestead Book Company.
